Developments and trends, 2023

In the 2023 sessions of various United Nations bodies, the international community continued to make progress in addressing several emerging challenges related to developments in science and technology and their implications for international peace and security.

On outer space, the Open-ended Working Group on Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours, established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 76/231, held its final two substantive sessions. Nevertheless, despite holding a wide-ranging discussion,^[1] the Working Group was ultimately unable to adopt a final report. The year also included the first substantive session of the Group of Governmental Experts on Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space. Established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 77/250, the Group is mandated to consider and make recommendations on the substantial elements of an international legally binding instrument related to the prevention of an arms race in outer space. It is scheduled to hold an additional session in 2024.

In addition, the Disarmament Commission successfully concluded its discussions and adopted recommendations on the practical implementation of transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities (for more information, see chap. 7). Reflecting different views on the approach to prevent an arms race in outer space, the General Assembly approved two new open-ended working groups, one mandated to meet from 2024 to 2025 and the other from 2024 to 2028.

Meanwhile, the Open-ended Working Group on Security of and in the Use of Information and Communications Technologies 2021–2025 held its fourth, fifth and sixth substantive sessions and adopted its second annual progress report by consensus (A/78/265). The Working Group agreed, inter alia, to establish a global, intergovernmental directory of points of contact to facilitate State information-sharing and interaction in the event of an information and communications technologies incident, on a voluntary basis.

Member States also continued preparations to negotiate a global digital compact in support of the 2024 Summit of the Future. As the co-facilitators of the relevant intergovernmental process, Sweden and Zambia convened a series of informal consultations and thematic “deep dives” aimed at informing the discussions.

On autonomous weapons systems, the Group of Governmental Experts related to emerging technologies in the area of lethal autonomous weapons systems convened in accordance with a decision of the 2022 Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. It adopted a report concluding, among other things, that States must ensure compliance with international law, in particular with international humanitarian law, throughout the life cycle of weapons systems in the area of lethal autonomous weapons systems. In the report, the Group also concluded that States should, when necessary, (a) limit the types of targets that those systems could engage; (b) limit the duration, geographical scope and scale of the operation of the weapon system; and (c) provide appropriate training and instructions for human operators (CCW/GGE.1/2023/2).

Figure 5.1.
Intergovernmental bodies addressing information and communications technologies security, 2004–present

On 20 July, the Secretary-General, António Guterres, presented to Member States his policy brief, A New Agenda for Peace, outlining his vision for multilateral efforts for peace and security, based on international law, for a world in transition. Framed around the core principles of trust, solidarity and universality, the document contains 12 recommendations for action across five priority areas. The New Agenda characterizes disarmament as a powerful prevention tool that is connected to the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals. It offers forward-leaning recommendations to a world at crossroads, including for preventing the use and proliferation of nuclear weapons and accelerating their elimination; reducing the human cost of weapons and centring collective efforts on the imperative to save human lives; preventing weaponization of new technologies, including in cyber and outer space, as well as evolving risks linked to advances in biology; stepping up space diplomacy; and seeking ways to address the deadlock in some disarmament institutions. The Summit of the Future, to be held in September 2024, will deliberate “A Pact for the Future”, which will elaborate, among other issues, matters relevant to disarmament informed by A New Agenda for Peace.

Figure 5.2.
A New Agenda for Peace: recommendations for action

Emerging issues

At its seventy-eighth session, the First Committee of the General Assembly adopted two draft resolutions introduced separately by the Russian Federation and the United Kingdom to establish open-ended working groups on outer space issues (for more information, see chap. 7). The Office for Disarmament Affairs, in consultation with Egypt, one of the main co-sponsors of the annual resolution on “Prevention of an arms race in outer space” (78/19), held informal discussions to determine the possibility of merging the two mandates. Ultimately, the General Assembly adopted the draft texts as resolutions 78/238 and 78/20, respectively.

Under the terms of the resolution introduced by the United Kingdom (78/20), the General Assembly decided to convene, in Geneva, a new open-ended working group. Building on the work of the 2022–23 open-ended working group and other relevant bodies and the existing international legal framework, including principles of international law, the new working group will aim to further elaborate the concept and to make recommendations on the prevention of an arms race in outer space through the development of norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours, including, but not exclusively, in the following areas: (a) intentional damage to and destruction of space systems; (b) threats to the safe operation of space objects; (c) rendezvous operations and proximity operations that could increase the risk of misunderstanding and miscalculation; (d) protecting critical space-based services to civilians as well as services that support humanitarian operations; and (e) other activities and measures that could reduce the risk of unintended escalation and conflict. The Assembly also decided to consider how the implementation of norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours could be monitored and verified, including through provision of capacity-building, cooperation on space situational awareness and the possible establishment of a mechanism for inter-State coordination and consultation on matters pertaining to space security.

Under the terms of the resolution introduced by the Russian Federation (78/238), the General Assembly decided, with a view to ensuring continuity and consistency in the consideration of issues pertaining to the prevention of an arms race in outer space, upon the termination of the activities of the Group of Governmental Experts on Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, to establish for the period 2024–2028 an open-ended working group to continue building on the work of the Group of Governmental Experts to consider and to make recommendations on substantial elements of an international legally binding instrument on the prevention of an arms race in outer space, including, inter alia, on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space, as well as to consider various aspects of the prevention of an arms race in outer space in the context of an international legally binding instrument on the prevention of an arms race in outer space.

Separately, Panama ratified, and Croatia acceded to, the Outer Space Treaty, bringing the total number of States parties to 114 as at the end of 2023.

In 2023, the malicious use of information and communications technologies by both State and non-State actors remained a pressing concern. A steady stream of destructive and disruptive incidents, including those impacting civilian infrastructure, continued in connection with ongoing conflicts. One of the most significant incidents occurred in December, when the largest mobile service provider in Ukraine, KyivStar, was subject to a malicious attack. Reports indicated that, besides mobile connectivity, a regional air raid warning system and some banking services for Ukrainians were also disrupted by the incident.

In addition to State actors, there was an observable increase in civilians taking part in digital operations related to armed conflict. In October, the International Committee of the Red Cross published “8 rules for ‘civilian hackers’ during war, and 4 obligations for States to restrain them”, underscoring that cyberspace was not a lawless space.

Despite those challenges, 2023 saw steady progress in General Assembly discussions on information and communications technologies, with the dedicated Open-ended Working Group on Security of and in the Use of Information and Communications Technologies (2021–2025) adopting a second action-oriented and consensus progress report in July (A/78/265), including an agreement to establish a global points of contact directory to facilitate State interaction in the event of an information and communications technologies incident. The Open-ended Working Group, chaired by Burhan Gafoor (Singapore), continued its substantive work, holding three sessions, in March, July and December. Throughout the sessions, States continued to consider existing and emerging threats as a result of State use of information and communications technologies; how international law applied to the use of these technologies by States; rules, norms and principles of responsible State behaviour; confidence-building measures; and capacity-building. States also continued to debate the format of a permanent institutional dialogue on those issues under United Nations auspices.

In July, the Secretary-General launched his vision for A New Agenda for Peace, acknowledging a proliferation of malicious cyber incidents impacting critical infrastructure, and recalling the affirmation of Member States that international law, including the Charter of the United Nations, applied to cyberspace (A/77/275, para. 2). Underscoring the urgency of efforts to protect the safety and security of cyberspace, the Secretary-General called on States to take additional concrete measures to prevent the extension and further escalation of conflict to the cyber domain, including to protect human life from malicious activity.

In the first of two recommendations on information and communications technologies security contained in A New Agenda for Peace, the Secretary-General called on Member States to declare infrastructure providing services to the public and essential to the functioning of society as off limits to malicious cyber activity by both State and non-State actors. Second, the Secretary-General proposed establishing an independent multilateral accountability mechanism for the malicious use of cyberspace by States to reduce incentives for such conduct.

Meanwhile, preparations to negotiate a global digital compact continued throughout the year as part of planning under way for the 2024 Summit for the Future. The President of the General Assembly appointed Anna Karin Eneström (Sweden) and Claver Gatete (Rwanda) to lead that process. Throughout 2023, the co-facilitators convened a series of informal consultations and thematic in-depth discussions to inform States’ further consideration of issues for the proposed global digital compact. In January and February, informal consultations took place with Member States, observer States and non-governmental stakeholders. From March through June, the co-facilitators organized eight thematic in-depth discussions on digital inclusion and connectivity, Internet governance, data protection, human rights online, artificial intelligence and other emerging technologies, digital trust and security, the global digital commons and the acceleration of progress on the Sustainable Development Goals.

In August, the General Assembly, through decision 77/568, requested its President to appoint, no later than 31 October, two pairs of co-facilitators, each comprising one from a developed country and one from a developing country, taking into account gender balance, to facilitate, as part of the preparatory process of the Summit of the Future, open, transparent and inclusive intergovernmental consultations on a global digital compact and a declaration on future generations, which would be annexed to the Pact for the Future if intergovernmentally agreed. To that end, on 10 October, the President of the General Assembly appointed Anna Karin Eneström (Sweden) and Chola Milambo (Zambia) to serve as co-facilitators of the Global Digital Compact negotiations process.

At the Security Council, Albania convened an Arria formula meeting on 25 May on the responsibility and responsiveness of States to cyberattacks on critical infrastructure (S/2023/364). The High Representative for Disarmament Affairs briefed the meeting participants, noting that the number of reported State-sponsored cyber incidents had increased fifteen-fold between 2005 and 2020, with threats posed to civilians and human life among the most worrisome occurrences. Recalling the broad acknowledgement that a number of States were developing information and communications technologies capabilities for military purposes, the High Representative warned of the growing likelihood that such technologies would be used in future conflicts. The meeting included statements by more than 25 States, in addition to the International Committee of the Red Cross and the European Union, with participants reflecting on various challenges posed to international peace and security by State use of information and communications technologies. In their remarks, delegates devoted particular attention to the vulnerability of critical infrastructure such as health-care systems and transport services.

The Open-ended Working Group on Security of and in the Use of Information and Communications Technologies 2021–2025 held its fourth, fifth and sixth substantive sessions in March, July and December, respectively, supported by intersessional meetings in May.

At the fifth substantive session, the Open-ended Working Group adopted its second annual progress report by consensus (A/78/265, annex), building on the first annual progress report (A/77/275, annex). The 2023 report contained a road map for discussions over the following year, including a dedicated intersessional meeting on capacity-building, and focused deliberations on strengthening measures to protect critical infrastructure and ensure the integrity of the supply chain. The Working Group also adopted specific modalities for the operation of a global points of contact directory, which would be managed by the Office for Disarmament Affairs, to facilitate communication between diplomatic and technical authorities, including in the event of a significant cybersecurity incident. In addition to the directory, the report listed an initial set of confidence-building measures, covering areas such as information-sharing.

Throughout the year, the Open-ended Working Group saw increased participation by women delegates and growing attention to their role in cyber policymaking. Progress towards gender parity continued, with women delegates delivering 57 per cent of the interventions at the December session—a marked improvement over other disarmament forums, though remaining short of parity (see also figure 6.1, “Percentage of women speakers in multilateral disarmament forums, 2021–2023”).^[2] The strong representation of women delegates was largely a result of dedicated initiatives such as the Women in Cyber Fellowship, financially supported by Australia, Canada, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States.

In December, the General Assembly adopted decision 78/541, endorsing the content of the second annual progress report and requesting the Secretariat to manage the global intergovernmental points of contact directory in accordance with elements elaborated by States through the Working Group.

The fourth substantive session of the Open-ended Working Group took place from 6 to 10 March at United Nations Headquarters. This session marked the start of a new annual cycle for the Working Group, following the adoption of its first annual progress report in July 2022 (A/77/275).

The fourth substantive session saw increased attendance, both in person and from capitals, as travel restrictions related to COVID-19 eased globally. Delegates began by adopting the programme of work (A/AC.292/2023/2/Rev.1) and then engaged in lengthy discussions on working methods and logistical matters, including the participation of non-governmental stakeholders.

In addition to the six subagenda items, delegates discussed recent developments in information and communications technologies security, including issues related to the conflict in Ukraine, alleged malicious use of such technologies to target critical infrastructure, and illegal cryptocurrency diversions by State and non-State actors.

The session saw strong engagement from women delegates. Of the 296 total delegates in attendance, 121 were women. A total of 320 statements were delivered during the formal proceedings, 149 of them by women delegates.

The fifth substantive session of the Open-ended Working Group took place in person from 24 to 28 July at United Nations Headquarters. The Working Group adopted its programme of work at the session’s first meeting (A/AC.292/2023/3) and focused throughout the week on negotiating its second annual progress report for consensus adoption. A total of 388 delegates attended, including 177 women. Of the 301 statements delivered, 135 were made by women delegates.

Acknowledging the Open-ended Working Group’s iterative progress in reaching consensual outcomes, delegates engaged in substantive discussions on the six subagenda items that would form the core of the second annual progress report. The deliberations proved particularly challenging on two topics: the applicability of international law to States’ use of information and communications technologies; and the future of regular institutional dialogue on such matters under United Nations auspices. Regarding international law, delegations presented several working papers elaborating States’ individual and joint positions, particularly on principles contained in the Charter of the United Nations. On institutional dialogue, Member States focused on two proposals put forward by France and the Russian Federation, each supported by a group of States. Those proposals outlined blueprints for a future regular institutional mechanism to consider issues of information and communications technologies security at the United Nations. The Open-ended Working Group acknowledged both proposals in its second annual progress report and committed to considering options further.

On 28 July, the Working Group concluded the session with the consensus adoption of its second annual progress report (A/78/265, annex). Concrete outcomes from the deliberations included detailed modalities for operationalizing a global, intergovernmental points of contact directory intended to facilitate voluntary communication between diplomatic and technical authorities on information and communications technologies issues and incidents. Furthermore, the Group recommended dedicated assistance in developing capacity-building resources. The Working Group also mandated the Secretariat to conduct a mapping exercise on the global landscape of capacity-building programmes and initiatives. The Group called for five intersessional meetings during 2024, including a global roundtable meeting on capacity-building. Additionally, the report encouraged States in a position to do so to support updates to the existing e-learning course entitled “Cyber Diplomacy”, previously developed by the Office for Disarmament Affairs and hosted on the Disarmament Education Dashboard.

The Open-ended Working Group held its sixth substantive session from 11 to 14 December at United Nations Headquarters, following its adopted programme of work (A/AC.292/2023/4).

As in previous substantive sessions, Member States engaged in dialogue on the six subagenda items. Discussions included references to the malicious use of information and communications technologies in connection with the war in Ukraine. The session featured rich exchanges, demonstrating States’ commitment to providing increasingly detailed interventions on various matters related to information and communications technologies security. Key topics included how international law applies to States’ actions in the cyber domain and potential cooperative measures that could be elaborated to better prevent the risk of hostilities in that domain.

Efforts towards gender parity reflected significant progress: of 183 total participants, 70 were women. Notably, women delegates delivered 163 of the 287 statements, marking the first session of the Open-ended Working Group in which women gave the majority of the remarks.

From 23 to 26 May, the Chair convened informal, intersessional meetings in New York, with a remote participation option. Participants followed up on the decisions of the Open-ended Working Group’s first annual progress report, following a structure broadly aligned with the six subagenda items. In addition, the intersessional meetings incorporated a dedicated virtual informal dialogue with stakeholders, as well as a dedicated meeting on the global intergovernmental points of contact directory.

The Open-ended Working Group also discussed proposals from individual Member States, including an initiative by India on establishing a global cyber security cooperation portal and a plan from Kenya for creating a global threat repository.

The year 2023 saw further discussions on a potential programme of action to advance responsible State behaviour in the use of information and communications technologies in the context of international security, in line with General Assembly mandates adopted in 2022. By its resolution 77/37, the Assembly had provided a broad overview of the structure and objectives of a potential permanent United Nations mechanism on information and communications technologies security issues, which would succeed the Open-ended Working Group on Security of and in the Use of Information and Communications Technologies 2021–2025.

Further to resolution 77/37, 37 Member States submitted written inputs for a compilation of national views on the structure, scope and content of the potential mechanism and modalities for its establishment (A/78/76).

In addition, from May to September, the Office for Disarmament Affairs partnered with relevant regional organizations^[3] to convene eight consultations on the proposed programme of action for their respective regions or subregions. A total of 185 States were invited to the meetings, which attracted more than 100 delegates. The Office later hosted an event held on the margins of the First Committee meetings to showcase key messages, priorities and perspectives of regional and subregional organizations. Representatives of the European Union, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Organization of American States and the League of Arab States presented overviews of their consultative meetings.

In December, the General Assembly adopted the second iteration of its resolution on the proposed programme of action (78/16). By that text, Member States committed to discuss the proposal further under the auspices of the Open-ended Working Group.

The Cyber Security Agency of Singapore partnered with the Office for Disarmament Affairs to launch the United Nations-Singapore Cyber Fellowship programme in 2022. Their aim was to equip high-level officials from Member States with a capacity-building programme tailored to the needs of decision makers, covering the areas of cyber and digital security governance, national cybersecurity strategy, legislation, operational capacity development, workforce and ecosystem development and international policy.

In 2023, two iterations of the Fellowship were held in May and August at the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Cybersecurity Centre of Excellence in Singapore. The sessions comprised briefings, panel and round-table discussions, laboratory visits and table-top exercises to promote discussion and application of the normative framework of responsible State behaviour in the use of information and communications technologies. A total of 56 participants representing 47 countries, with equal participation by men and women, joined the programmes.

In 2023, the Office for Disarmament Affairs prepared the sixth edition of the report of the Secretary-General on current developments in science and technology and their potential impact on international security and disarmament efforts (A/78/268). In the report, the Secretary-General addressed scientific and technological developments in the following areas: (a) artificial intelligence and autonomous and uncrewed systems; (b) digital technologies; (c) biology and chemistry; (d) space and aerospace systems; (e) electromagnetic technologies; and (f) materials technologies. The sixth edition of the report also included a cross-sectional analysis of gender considerations.

In the report’s conclusions, the Secretary-General recommended that United Nations bodies and entities continue to encourage multi-stakeholder and geographically equitable engagement, including by industry and other private sector actors, through formal and informal platforms. He also highlighted the recommendations in his policy brief on A New Agenda for Peace related to emerging technologies and their impact on peace and security, which could inform the work of Member States to devise concrete actions in the lead-up to the Summit of the Future.

On 27 and 28 September in Berlin, the International Institute for Strategic Studies held the fifth meeting of its Missile Dialogue Initiative, established in 2019 in partnership with Germany. Officials from more than 20 States participated, discussing arms control, missile technology and their implications for European security, including opportunities and challenges.

Cross-cutting issues

In its annual resolution on the relationship between disarmament and development (78/23), the General Assembly reaffirmed the importance of that linkage, including within the framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. As in previous years, it urged the international community to use resources made available through disarmament and arms limitation agreements in the service of economic and social development, and called on Member States to convey details on their relevant measures and efforts to the Secretary-General.

In his policy brief on A New Agenda for Peace, the Secretary-General highlighted the need to reinvest in the linkage between disarmament and arms control and development. Specifically, he called for States to reduce their military spending to strengthen sustainable peace and advance towards the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.

Meanwhile, the Office for Disarmament Affairs continued its efforts to strengthen and operationalize the linkages between disarmament and development by integrating small arms control into national development frameworks. It held bilateral consultations with the United Nations resident coordinators of 11 countries severely affected by the proliferation of illicit small arms, in accordance with advice from the Development Coordination Office, while also continuing to administer the Saving Lives Entity (SALIENT) trust fund and the United Nations Trust Facility Supporting Cooperation on Arms Regulation (UNSCAR).^[4]

Under the leadership of the United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism, the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact continued working to strengthen coordination and coherence among United Nations entities to facilitate national-level implementation of the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, in addition to relevant General Assembly and Security Council resolutions. In 2023, the Compact welcomed the International Monetary Fund as its forty-sixth member, further strengthening representation from within the United Nations system.

The Compact’s eight working groups held 30 quarterly meetings and four thematic discussions throughout the year, facilitating information exchange, joint research and capacity-building activities.

The Working Group on Emerging Threats and Critical Infrastructure Protection held four quarterly meetings in 2023—on 22 March, 31 May, 6 November and 14 December—in support of Member States’ efforts to prevent and respond to emerging terrorist threats, including those related to the misuse of chemical, biological, nuclear or radiological materials. Another aim was to enhance the protection of critical infrastructure against terrorist attacks, including infrastructure housing such materials, while upholding human rights and the rule of law.

During the year, several Working Group members and external entities briefed one another on their respective research and analytical findings. The briefing participants included the Office of Counter-Terrorism and the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which introduced a project entitled “Interoperability in Response to Chemical and Biological Attacks”, and the Counter-Terrorism Executive Directorate, which briefed attendees on the development of guiding principles for uncrewed aerial systems and information and communications technology. Another presentation addressed a range of threat assessments from the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team pursuant to resolutions 1526 (2004) and 2253 (2015) concerning Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and the Taliban and associated individuals and entities. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur on Counter-Terrorism and Human Rights delivered remarks on the human rights implications of developing, using and transferring new technologies in the context of counter-terrorism and of countering and preventing violent extremism. Moreover, as it explored opportunities to further support the implementation of Security Council resolution 1540 (2004), the Chair and various Vice-Chairs of the Working Group continued to engage with the Group of Experts of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540 (2004) (1540 Committee), as well as with the Office of Disarmament Affairs, another Vice-Chair.

In addition, the Working Group on Emerging Threats and Critical Infrastructure Protection received regular briefings on technical assistance and capacity-building initiatives implemented by its members. For example, it was briefed on an initiative aimed at protecting critical infrastructure against terrorist attacks in accordance with Security Council resolution 2341 (2017), as well as soft targets in accordance with resolution 2396 (2017). Chiefly focused on elaborating security arrangements for soft targets, the initiative represented a collaboration of the Office of Counter-Terrorism, the Counter-Terrorism Executive Directorate and the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL). In addition, the Working Group was briefed on OPCW support of interoperability and communications related to chemical attacks, as well as capacity-building efforts to prevent trafficking of radiological and nuclear material.

In March, the Working Group on Border Management and Law Enforcement Relating to Counter-Terrorism successfully completed its development of “Technical guidelines to facilitate the implementation of Security Council resolution 2370 (2017) and related international standards and good practices on preventing terrorists from acquiring weapons”. The technical guidelines—a specialized review of measures for preventing terrorists from acquiring weapons, in particular small arms and light weapons, improvised explosive devices and unmanned aircraft systems—benefited from the expertise of various entities within the Working Group. They were expected to serve as a practical tool to support the implementation of resolution 2370 (2017), as well as relevant subsequent resolutions, good practices, and international standards and guidelines.

The Office of Counter-Terrorism collaborated with the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre, the Counter-Terrorism Executive Directorate and the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) to jointly organize two workshops to promote the technical guidelines in the Maghreb, Sahel and Caribbean subregions. Developed with expert support from entities across the United Nations system,^[5] the workshops took place alongside other regional events aimed at promoting the technical guidelines, facilitating discussion on the development of practices to prevent terrorists from acquiring weapons, and identifying opportunities to strengthen relevant national and regional measures. Another aim of the workshops was to establish a foundation for further modifications, revisions and updates of the technical guidelines, which were designed as a living document.

Meanwhile, the Office of Counter-Terrorism continued to maintain the online Counter-Terrorism Coordination Platform. In 2023, more than 1,050 personnel representing 46 entities of the Compact, 137 Member States and 14 regional organizations used the system to collaborate and share information.

Beyond its role as the Compact’s secretariat, the Office of Counter-Terrorism implemented global, regional and national outreach and capacity-building activities. Those efforts enhanced capacities and awareness among 800 officials from over 70 Member States related to countering the terrorist use of weapons. The activities took place through the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre’s multi-year programme on “Countering the Terrorist Use of Weapons”, an effort covering weapons of mass destruction, small arms and light weapons, improvised explosive devices and unmanned aircraft systems.

The Office’s work included organizing two high-level events on the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism: a side event of the third Counter-Terrorism Week (19 June); and the launch of an awareness-raising project, implemented jointly with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, on the importance of universalizing and effectively implementing the Convention (17 October). Furthermore, the Office engaged with legislators in the Philippines on 24 May and in Togo on 14 June, advocating for the Convention’s ratification as a means to reinforce and promote adherence to regional nuclear security.

Additionally, the Office convened a regional table-top exercise and workshop for the Sahel from 14 to 16 March, covering nuclear detection and links to traditional national security, with a focus on cooperation to implement the Convention; a table-top exercise and workshop for Central Asia and the Caucasus from 30 May to 1 June, which addressed legal frameworks and nuclear forensics; and a capacity-building course for Nigeria from 12 to 15 December, intended to help protect critical infrastructure against radiological and nuclear threats. Those activities took place with the support of Finland, France, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Romania, Tajikistan, the United States and the European Union.

As part of the Office of Counter-Terrorism, the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre also engaged in activities focused on preventing and responding to biological and chemical terrorism. It cooperated with OPCW to conduct three inter-agency workshops, covering the topics of information exchange (March), emergency response cooperation (May) and deployments (June). In addition, the Centre partnered with OSCE to co-organize the “Regional Workshop on Preventing Bioterrorism Attacks” on 5 and 6 June.

Together with the United States, the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre held two virtual seminars, in September and November, aimed at strengthening State capacities in sub-Saharan Africa to develop exercises for countering potential acts of terrorism involving weapons of mass destruction, including chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear arms. The Counter-Terrorism Centre also convened an in-person regional workshop from 3 to 6 October in Nairobi, hosted by the Government of Kenya. In addition, Indonesia benefited from a national, strategic-level table-top exercise on countering chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear terrorist threats against vulnerable targets.

To address the nexus between terrorism, arms and crime, the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre joined the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime to hold a series of training courses, workshops and community-of-practice meetings on preventing the illicit trafficking of small arms and light weapons and their supply to terrorists in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Furthermore, the Counter-Terrorism Centre convened a regional workshop to support East African Member States in addressing terrorist use of various weapons, outlining the separate upstream and downstream measures applied towards small arms and light weapons, improvised explosive devices and uncrewed aircraft systems. Representatives from 13 international and regional organizations attended the workshop.^[6]

The Counter-Terrorism Centre also supported the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Coordination Compact through two main initiatives. In the first initiative, its Working Group on Emerging Threats and Critical Infrastructure Protection engaged with OPCW and the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute to co-organize a meeting of functional focal points for a project on ensuring inter-agency interoperability in response to chemical and biological attacks. In the second initiative, the Working Group on Border Management and Law Enforcement Relating to Counter-Terrorism coordinated with the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate and UNIDIR to support Member States in applying the above-mentioned technical guidelines for preventing terrorists from acquiring weapons, in line with Security Council resolution 2370 (2017). Specifically, the three entities held regional workshops for the Maghreb, Sahel and Caribbean subregions in support of the guidelines.

The United Nations Counter-Terrorism Centre maintained its coordination and close cooperation with numerous United Nations entities, international organizations and initiatives, including the 1540 Committee, the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the International Civil Aviation Organization, INTERPOL, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OPCW, OSCE, the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, UNIDIR, the United Nations Mine Action Service, the Office for Disarmament Affairs, the Office of Legal Affairs, the World Customs Organization and the World Health Organization, as well as the Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction, the Nuclear Threat Initiative and the Counter-Terrorism Preparedness Network.

In 2023, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) continued to promote adherence to and effective implementation of the international legal instruments against chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear terrorism in accordance with its relevant mandate (78/226). The Office carried out technical assistance activities within the framework of projects funded by Canada, the United States and the European Union.

UNODC activities included organizing a regional workshop in Vienna to support South-Eastern European Member States in strengthening the capacities of their criminal justice systems to effectively implement the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. In addition, the Office promoted the Convention’s universalization and effective implementation by convening two regional workshops: for Pacific countries in Nadi, Fiji, from May 6 to 10; and for South-East Asian countries in Bangkok on 21 and 22 June. It also conducted workshops in Botswana, Panama and Zambia, considering Security Council resolution 1540 (2004) in the context of border security.

In May and June, UNODC co-organized—together with the Netherlands, Romania, Tajikistan and the United States, as well as the Office of Counter-Terrorism—a table-top exercise aimed at identifying and demonstrating effective regional and international cooperation mechanisms, including the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, as well as the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and its 2005 Amendment, for investigating and prosecuting radiological and nuclear crimes. To further support the universalization and effective implementation of the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, the Office organized national workshops for officials in Maldives and in Brunei Darussalam while also conducting country visits to Mauritius, the Philippines, Sierra Leone, Togo and Zimbabwe.

At events held in Vienna in September and New York in October, UNODC collaborated with the Office of Counter-Terrorism and the European Union to kick off a new project entitled “Union Support for the Universalisation and Effective Implementation of the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism”. As part of the European Union-funded initiative, the Office carried out two webinars in October for countries not yet party to the Convention, focusing separately on English- and French-speaking African countries. Furthermore, to ensure sustainability in its efforts to promote the Convention’s universalization and effective implementation, the Office conducted two follow-up virtual events for previous beneficiary countries not yet party to the agreement, focusing on countries in the Pacific and South-East Asia. In December, UNODC held a national training seminar on the Convention in Montenegro, the first in a series for States parties’ judicial and prosecutorial training centres. In September, the Office partnered with the IAEA to conduct a high-level side event during the sixty-seventh IAEA General Conference to examine synergies for global nuclear security among three international legal instruments—the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, as well as the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and its 2005 Amendment.

The Office continued to promote tools and resources related to the international legal framework against chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear terrorism. In its Manual on Fictional Cases related to Offences under the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism and an e-learning module on the Convention’s key provisions, the Office aimed to promote awareness of the need to adhere to the Convention and incorporate its requirements into national legislation. All of those materials appeared on the Office’s regularly updated website for the Convention (www.unodc.org/icsant) in all six United Nations official languages, with some also translated into Portuguese. Regarding other resources, at the end of 2023, the UNODC website contained submissions from 51 States parties on their legislation to implement the Convention’s criminalization provisions. The Office also continued to offer its e-learning module on the international legal framework against chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear terrorism, available in all United Nations official languages and Portuguese. Since its launch in 2019, the module had been completed by over 2,600 practitioners from 128 Member States.

The Office also contributed to several IAEA events during the year. Those activities included two regional workshops on the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and its 2005 Amendment, held in Zimbabwe in March and in the Dominican Republic in May; a regional workshop to coordinate the implementation of integrated nuclear security sustainability plans, held in Togo in August; national workshops for officials in Mauritius and Sierra Leone to promote the universalization of the Convention and its 2005 amendment, held in February and April, respectively; a technical meeting of the points of contact for integrated nuclear security sustainability plans in October; the sixty-seventh IAEA General Conference in September; programme committee meetings for the 2024 International Conference on Nuclear Security; and other technical meetings and seminars related to nuclear and radiological security.

Throughout 2023, UNODC cooperated regularly with many other organizations and initiatives. It contributed to workshops organized by the Office of Disarmament Affairs in Cameroon, Kenya,^[7] the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Nigeria and Thailand on implementing resolution 1540 (2004). In October, it participated in a regional workshop for the Caribbean, hosted by OPCW, on the role of national legislation in implementing provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention concerning threats arising from non-State actors. In November, the Office presented at the twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of National Authorities to the OPCW. Furthermore, it contributed to an international air law treaty event organized by the International Civil Aviation Organization and hosted by the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore in December. Additionally, UNODC contributed to the first European Union Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Centres of Excellence-African Union Forum on Reducing CBRN Risks, held in Ethiopia in December.

UNODC also took part in a number of civil society initiatives, including workshops by Parliamentarians for Global Action to foster solution-oriented dialogue and engagement on nuclear security concerns in Cameroon, Gambia, Trinidad and Tobago, Seychelles and Suriname. Moreover, the Office delivered a presentation on the Convention at a regional meeting of the African Center for Science and International Security, held in Ghana in February. UNODC also contributed to the Nuclear Threat Initiative’s Global Dialogue on Nuclear Security Priorities in April, as well as the Latin American Dialogue on Nuclear Security Priorities in November.

The Agency plays a central role in strengthening the nuclear security framework globally and in coordinating international activities in the field of nuclear security, while avoiding duplication and overlap of such activities. Nuclear security focuses on the prevention and detection of and response to criminal or intentional unauthorized acts involving or directed at nuclear material, other radioactive material, associated facilities or associated activities. Responsibility for nuclear security within a State rests entirely with that State, in accordance with its respective national and international obligations.

The Agency continued to assist States upon request in their national efforts to establish and maintain effective and comprehensive nuclear security of all nuclear and other radioactive material at all times. These activities assist States’ efforts to establish effective and sustainable national nuclear security regimes and, where appropriate, to fulfil their obligations, including under the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and its Amendment, as well as the relevant United National Security Council resolutions, such as resolution 1540 (2004).

Implementation of Security Council resolution 1540 (2004)

In resolution 1540 (2004), the Security Council decided that all States shall refrain from providing any form of support to non-State actors that attempted to develop, acquire, manufacture, possess, transport, transfer or use nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their means of delivery, in particular for terrorist purposes. The Council required all States to adopt and enforce appropriate laws to that effect, as well as other effective measures to prevent the proliferation of those weapons and their means of delivery to non-State actors, in particular for terrorist purposes.

In 2023, the Committee established pursuant to resolution 1540 (2004) (1540 Committee) was chaired by Hernán Pérez Loose from 31 January to 28 November, by Andrés Montalvo from 29 November to 14 December, and by José De La Gasca from 15 to 31 December. In accordance with resolution 2663 (2022), by which the Council extended the 1540 Committee’s mandate for 10 years, until 30 November 2032, the Committee adopted its twentieth programme of work, covering the period from 1 February 2023 to 31 January 2024 (S/2023/117, annex). The programme of work organized the Committee’s work around four pillars: (a) monitoring and implementation; (b) assistance; (c) cooperation with international, regional and subregional organizations; and (d) transparency and outreach. The Office for Disarmament Affairs, the Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs, and the 1540 Committee’s Group of Experts continued to support the Committee in implementing its programme of work.

By paragraph 4 of resolution 1540 (2004), the Security Council mandated States to submit a first report on the steps they had taken or intend to take to implement the resolution. By the end of 2023, 185 of the 193 Member States had submitted their first report, while 8 States had yet to do so.^[8] Furthermore, 124 Member States had submitted at least one additional report. As of the end of the year, Member States had submitted a total of 537 first and additional national reports on steps taken to implement resolution 1540 (2004).

The Security Council encouraged States in resolution 1977 (2011) and its successors to provide additional information on their implementation efforts, including, voluntarily, on their laws and regulations and on States’ effective practices. In 2023, India, Türkiye and Uruguay submitted additional information, bringing the number of States that had done so to 115.

To facilitate dialogue with the 1540 Committee on implementing resolution 1540 (2004), States are encouraged to submit up-to-date information on national points of contact, preferably both in their capitals and at their respective permanent missions in New York. In 2023, responding to renewed calls from the 1540 Committee, 43 States either named new or updated existing points of contact, bringing the total number of States with designated points of contact for resolution 1540 (2004) to 146.

The Security Council encouraged States, by resolution 1977 (2011) and subsequent resolutions, to prepare, on a voluntary basis, national implementation action plans to map out their priorities and plans for implementing key provisions of resolution 1540 (2004). In 2023, Madagascar submitted such a plan, bringing the total, as at 31 December, to 47 voluntary national implementation action plans, which were adopted by 38 States.

The Office for Disarmament Affairs supported several additional Member States in initiating processes to adopt voluntary national implementation action plans. In 2023, the Office organized workshops in Phnom Penh from 25 to 27 April, in Yaoundé from 12 to 14 September, in Bangkok from 10 to 12 October, in Abuja from 16 to 18 October, and in Vientiane from 28 to 30 November. Those workshops convened various national ministries and agencies responsible for implementing resolution 1540 (2004). The aim was to raise their awareness about the resolution’s objectives and obligations, review the status of national implementation, identify areas needing improvement, and establish priorities and targets for the action plans.

In its resolution 2663 (2022), the Security Council reiterated that many Member States still required assistance in implementing resolution 1540 (2004) and emphasized the importance of improving the 1540 Committee’s matchmaking mechanism to ensure effective, timely and tailored assistance. The 1540 Committee initiated a review of its current assistance mechanism, established in 2018, including by conducting periodic reviews of pending assistance requests. In 2023, Iraq, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan and Madagascar submitted new assistance requests to the Committee. Additionally, Mexico and Zambia updated their previously submitted requests from 2019 and 2020, respectively.

In resolution 1540 (2004) and its successors,^[9] the Security Council recognized the need to enhance the coordination of efforts at the national, subregional, regional and international levels to strengthen a global response to the threat from non-State actors. Likewise, the Council recognized the role and efforts of international, regional and subregional organizations, including United Nations bodies, in supporting Member States in their implementation of resolution 1540 (2004), and called for continued cooperation in that regard.

Accordingly, the Office of Disarmament Affairs engaged States and regional organizations to foster and facilitate cooperation, coordination and exchanges at the subregional level. On 7 and 8 March, in cooperation with Japan, a stakeholders meeting in Tokyo brought together representatives from 14 States in the Asia-Pacific region.^[10] In Africa, the Office collaborated with Kenya and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development to convene a subregional workshop on 14 and 15 March in Nairobi, drawing representatives from 7 States in the region.^[11] Members of the 1540 Committee also attended the regional workshops, which were intended to enrich States’ understanding of their obligations under resolution 1540 (2004) and the status of its implementation in the respective subregions. The workshop offered States a platform to share their experiences in implementing the resolution and discuss opportunities for cross-border cooperation. Furthermore, Brazil, Chile and Mexico conducted, with the support of the Organization of American States, a peer-review exercise on the implementation of resolution 1540 (2004), which was held on 28 and 29 September in Mexico City.

At the level of the Security Council, the 1540 Committee continued to explore opportunities to enhance ongoing cooperation with the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolutions 1267 (1999), 1989 (2011) and 2253 (2015) concerning Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals, groups, undertakings and entities. In particular, the two Committees jointly briefed the Security Council in November (S/PV.9478).

In resolution 1540 (2004), the Security Council calls upon States to develop appropriate ways to work with and inform industry and the public regarding their obligations under national laws and regulations adopted pursuant to the resolution and the key multilateral non-proliferation treaties. In support of those efforts, and within the context of the “Wiesbaden process” for industry outreach, the Office for Disarmament Affairs and Germany co-organized a series of three global and regional conferences to engage and inform industry and the private sector. The conferences took place in Wiesbaden on 8 and 9 February, in Bangkok on 6 and 7 September for Asian States, and in Santiago on 5 and 6 October for Latin American States.

Furthermore, in resolution 2663 (2022), the Security Council calls upon States to take into account developments on the evolving nature of the risk of proliferation and rapid advances in science and technology in their implementation of resolution 1540 (2004). To support those efforts, the Office for Disarmament Affairs partnered with Germany to launch the Erlangen Initiative, aimed at raising awareness within the scientific and academic community about the risks associated with the misuse of scientific and technological developments, as well as fostering dialogue between government regulators and academia regarding effective means to control intangible technology transfers. The inaugural conference of the Erlangen Initiative was held on 8 and 9 November in Nuremberg, Germany.

On 18 July, the Office for Disarmament Affairs published a policy brief entitled Resolution 1540 and the African Continental Free Trade Area Agreement: Policy Options to Strengthen Non-Proliferation Controls and Secure Trade. Developed with the South African Institute of International Affairs, the brief explores intersections between resolution 1540 (2004) and the African Continental Free Trade Area Agreement. It highlights opportunities to enhance the implementation of export and border control measures required by resolution 1540 (2004) in a manner that contributes to safeguarding the Agreement against the risk of illicit trafficking in chemical, biological and nuclear materials and dual-use items. The authors propose several pathways to support a reliable and secure regional trading system and economic development.

In 2023, the 1540 Committee, including through its Chair and Group of Experts, participated in 33 outreach events organized by States, international and regional organizations, and civil society organizations to support transparency and help foster greater cooperation and awareness among States; parliamentarians; relevant international, regional and subregional organizations; and civil society (including academia and industry) regarding the obligations set out in resolution 1540 (2004) and their implementation.

With support from the Office for Disarmament Affairs, the 1540 Committee also continued to maintain its website both as a tool to raise public awareness and as a key source of information related to resolution 1540 (2004).